University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Department of Religion and Cultural Studies
RCS 416 Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
Obiorah Mary Jerome
Lecture Note for the use of Students
2015
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha[1]
1. General Introduction
The term Pseudepigrapha is a neuter plural noun; the singular is pseudepigraphon. This word is a compound noun from two Greek words: pseudēs meaning ‘false’ and the verb epigraphein, ‘to inscribe’. Epigraphein is in itself a compound verb from epi- ‘on’, ‘upon’, etc. and graphein, “to write”. In other words, it means falsely inscribed or bearing a false title. History has it that the term pseudepigraphon and the plural pseudepigrapha (the adjective is pseudepigraphic) came into use from Greek to New Latin and to English between 1685 and 1695 AD.
In Biblical studies, Pseudepigrapha is used to indicate the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; therefore, it refers to anonymous or pseudonymous writings professing to be Biblical, but are not included in any canon of the Bible, that is, collection of Biblical books. They are various Jewish writings from the second century BC to the second century AD that claim to have been divinely revealed but which have been excluded from the Greek canon of the Old Testament, the Septuagint (LXX). These books are also called, in the Roman Catholic Church, Apocrypha.
Pseudepigrapha are spurious or false writings, especially writings falsely attributed to Biblical characters or times. They are a body of texts written between 200 BC and AD 200 and spuriously ascribed to various prophets and kings of Hebrew Scriptures.
In both the OT and the NT, there are books that most probably were not written by persons whose names these books bear. There are, for example, many Psalms attributed to David which scholars have discovered were composed many years after David had lived and died. Other books of the OT such as Proverbs of Solomon and Wisdom of Solomon were not composed by this monarch. In the same way some parts of Isaiah were not written by the prophet Isaiah who lived some years before the events alluded to in that book. Similarly, in the NT some letters attributed to Paul, like the Pastoral Letters, were probably not written by Paul.
1.1 Importance of Pseudepigrapha
These writings are essentially useful for a good understanding of early Judaism (250 BC – 200 AD) and of early Christian origins. The documents that were written before 70 AD are great sources of information for perceiving the life and thoughts of early Jews in Palestine and other places where the Jews were at that time, particularly in Alexandria. These documents manifest an open and cosmopolitan Judaism which was vibrant, alive and full of thoughts in all contiguous cultures, notably Egypt, Persia, Syria, Greece, and Italy. In these documents we see the ideas, symbols, perceptions, fears and dreams of pre-70 AD. The documents help us to understand and reconstruct the life of Jews in Palestine and in the Diaspora, especially before 70 AD.
The study of the origin of Christianity has been greatly enhanced due to the study and appreciation of Pseudepigrapha and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some of Jesus’ symbols like “Kingdom of God”, “Son of Man”, and “living water” are all found in the Pseudepigrapha.
1.2 Authorship and Date of Pseudepigrapha
Some of the Pseudepigrapha were compiled or written by Jews; and others were written by Jews and expanded or rewritten by Christians. There are some that were composed by Christians who made use of Jewish writings or oral tradition before 70 AD. The ones written by Christians or edited by Christians were certainly influenced by Christian belief in the person and teaching Jesus, even though many of these early Christians were Jews. Additions they made in the texts were mainly Christological, about the person of Jesus.
The writers of these works attributed them falsely to others for some reasons which could be:
They wanted to write authoritatively in the name of an influential Biblical person.
The same principle of solidarity that united the Jews with their predecessors was probably behind the attribution of these works to persons who lived in distant past. They ascribed the works to them because they believed that God himself guided these holy predecessors.
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The oldest documents in the Pseudepigrapha were composed about the third century BC; others were composed between 70 AD and 200 BC. The year 70 was the year assigned to the destruction of Jerusalem; while 200 AD was the year for the compilation of Mishnah (the primary collection of Jewish civil and religious laws). Part of the Pseudepigrapha that were of Christians origin date from around 100 to 400 AD; Christians, however, continued to retouch and alter the texts even after this date.
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1.3 Old Testament Influence in Pseudepigrapha
Some of the pseudepigrapha claim to be revelations attributed to prominent persons (e.g. Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Jeremiah, Isaiah, Ezra, and other famous men) in the OT who lived many years before the composition of these writings. There are some of the writings that are simply re-written versions or expansions of OT narratives; others are Psalms that resemble OT Psalms; finally, there are some that have close affinity with OT Wisdom Literature.
1.4 Genres of the Pseudepigrapha
The most comprehensive edition of Pseudepigrapha contains about sixty-five documents which are of various literary forms.
a.) Apocalyptic Literature and related works
Apocalypse means revelation of the future, a revelation made concerning the future. Apocalypse among the Pseudepigrapha are: 1-3 Enoch, Questions of Enoch, Revelations of Enoch, Apocalypse of Sedrach, Sibylline Oracles, Treatise of Shem, Apocryphon of Ezekiel, Apocalypse of Zephaniah, The Fourth Book of Ezra, Greek Apocalypse of Ezra, Vision of Ezra, 2-3 Baruch, Apocalypse of Abraham, Apocalypse of Adam, Apocalypse of Elijah, Apocalypse of Daniel
b.) Testaments (Often with Apocalyptic Sections
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Testament of Job, Testaments of the Three Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), Testament of Moses, Testament of Solomon, Testament of Adam
c.) Expansions of the OT and Legends
Letter of Aristeas, Jubilees, Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, Joseph and Aseneth, Life of Adam and Eve, Pseudo-Philo, Lives of the Prophets, Ladder of Jacob, 4 Baruch, Jannes and Jambres, History of the Rechabites, Eldad and Modad, History of Joseph
d) Wisdom and Philosophical Literature
Ahiqar, 3-4 Maccabees, Pseudo-Phyocylides, Syriac-Menander
e) Prayers, Psalms, and Odes (type of lyric poem: a lyric poem, usually expressing exalted emotion in a complex scheme of rhyme and meter)
More Psalms of David, Prayer of Manasseh, Psalms of Solomon, Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers, Prayer of Joseph, Prayer of Jacob, Odes of Solomon
f) Fragments of Judeo-Hellenistic Works
Philo the Epic Poet, Orphica, Fragments of Pseudo-Greek Poets, Demetrius the Chronographer, Eupolemus, Cleodemus, Pseudo-Hecataeus, Aristeas the Exegete, Pseudo-Eupolemus, Artapanus
Copies of Jubilees, 1 Enoch and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. This discovery helps scholars give date to Pseudepigrapha. The fact that they were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls means that these documents were written before 70 AD.
1.5 Background of Pseudepigrapha
These documents were most certainly generated from some backgrounds which can firstly be traced to Judaism and Hellenism. The monotheistic nature of the Jewish religion was in some way preserved during the Persian rule because the religion of the Persians was closely related to monotheism. Judaism suffered greatly when the Greeks came into power; the Jews were seduced into idolatry. However, there were some of the Jews, a large class of them who were not affected by this idolatry and who hated the influence of Hellenic culture and greatly resisted it, especially as it hampered monotheism. One of the groups of Jews who was uninfluenced by Hellenic religious seduction was the scribist legal party that developed into Pharisaic sect. There were also mystics who felt the personal power of God. They were the Hasidim who later became the Essenes. These were members of an ascetic Jewish group that flourished in Palestine and Syria from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. Its members, consisting only of men, shared property, practiced celibacy, and observed the Sabbath. They later gradually retired from active participation in national life. As mystics, they could see visions and had dreams. Enlightened ones among them welcomed the enlightenment of Greek culture, although they retained their faith in one God. They believed strongly that their God is the true God and thus any enlightenment must have its origin in him alone, even the Greek development. They believed that the Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle were in harmony with the Mosaic Law. They also believed that there were close links between Greek thinkers and Divine revelation. These enlightened Jews were able to perceive in Moses and the Law the philosophical ideas of their time.
Apart from this religio-cultural background, there was also political influence. Political turmoil at this time contributed to the activities of the Apocalyptists. In the first place, there was the contribution of Antiochus III, called The Great (242-187 BC), king of Syria (223-187 BC), the son of Seleucus II and brother of Seleucus III, whom he succeeded. He was the most distinguished of the Seleucids. He favoured the Greeks and the barbarians who Hellenized. He became with his son Antiochus Epiphanes a direct religious persecution. The Hasidim protested strongly and the visionaries heightened their own imagination. The Maccabees and their followers protested greatly; the mystics among the Jews placed their hope in God and on the coming Messiah. They imagined to themselves the punishment of the tyrants by Yahweh. Another political influence was the Herodian family who complied with the heathen practices because of their allegiance to the Romans. Very religious Jews withdrew from the Herodian rule. The visionaries renewed their expectation of Divine intervention. Closely related to the Herodians were the Romans. Pompey desecrated the Temple in Jerusalem by intruding into the Holy of Holies. He was later overthrown by Caesar and died on the shores of Egypt. All these were seen as divine punishment on him. Another political figure that influenced the visionaries was Nero; he was emperor of Rome from AD 54 to 68. He had many of his political enemies murdered or executed, and he even ordered the execution of his wife and mother. In 68 the Roman Senate declared him a public enemy and he committed suicide.
1.6 General Characteristics of Pseudepigrapha
a.) They differ from Old Testament Prophecy in their Contents
These documents made use of the OT, especially the prophets, but they do not fully identify with the characteristics of the OT prophets particularly in their contents. Both have predictive elements; they prophesy what would happen in the future; but unlike the OT prophets, predictive elements in Pseudepigrapha relate to longer periods and to the world at large. Prediction in the OT refers mainly to the people of Israel.
OT prophets and Pseudepigrapha make reference to the coming of the Messiah. In the Pseudepigrapha, the nature and role of the Messiah are more defined and he has wider reference. He would come not just to deliver the people of Israel as we read in the OT but his influence would reach the whole world.
The OT prophets were primarily preachers of righteousness and employed prediction to justify this and as a guarantee of their divine mission or as an exhibition of the natural result of rebellion against God’s law. Prediction in Pseudepigrapha does not contain moral exhortation; rather it concentrates mainly on the predictive aspects.
b.) Pseudepigrapha differ from OT Prophecy in Literary Form
Both Pseudepigrapha and OT Prophets made use of vision; but in the OT prophecy, visions are intrinsic part of prophecy. They are naturally implied in the OT prophecy. Therefore, these visions in the OT prophecy are not usually described; it is presumed that the audience knew that they were vision and do not need description. There is only one instance of such description of vision in Isaiah as we read in Isa 6; even here the intention is exhortative. On the other hand, in Pseudepigrapha, visions are the means through which the prediction is conveyed. Ezekiel has visions but only one of these is predictive, that is, “the valley of dry bones”. The symbols used in this vision are natural, unlike in Pseudepigrapha where the symbols are not natural.
Literarily, the prophets used more elevated prose that is almost poetry; in fact, many of the prophets used poetry. On the contrary, Pseudepigrapha are mainly in prose; they are more of narrative.
2. Study of Some Selected Pseudepigrapha
2.1 The Book of Jubilees
The word Jubilee is coined in 14th century AD. English Language derived it from French jubilé which is taken from Latin jubilaeus (annus) “(year) of jubilee”; Latin derived this word from ecclesiastical Greek iōbēlos which took from Hebrew yōbēl “ram”, which is the Hebrew word for the ram’s horn with which the year of jubilee was proclaimed among the Jews.
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The title, Jubilees, comes from the fact that the narrative is broken down into divisions of time called jubilees (7x7 + 1 = 50 years). The book asserts that 49 jubilees passed from the time of Adam when the content of this book was dictated to Moses. This book is also called “Little Genesis”, “the Apocalypse of Moses”, and “the book of the Divisions of the Times”, or simply “Divisions”.
The Book of Jubilees is a narrative of Moses’ experience on Mount Sinai. Here God commanded the “Angel of the Presence” to give Moses an account of Israel’s history. The book closely parallels the Genesis narrative from Creation to the time of Moses (Genesis 1—Exodus 14), with additional stories told of the biblical characters. The book reports that the patriarchs observed festivals and legal practices later formalized in the Law. The book mentions two “Satan” figures: Belial and Prince Mastema.
The Book of Jubilees is largely based on the biblical book of Genesis. Additional sources include the non-canonical Books of Noah and Enoch.
Jubilees was probably and originally written in Hebrew; there were about 12 Hebrew fragments of it discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls’ There is also Ethiopic translation dating 15th / 16th century AD, which contains the entire text. In fact it is the essential basis for the English translation of the Book of Jubilees. We also have Latin translation that contains approximately one fourth of the text. Finally, some fragments have been found written in Greek.
The Intention of the Author of the Jubilees
The intention of the author of the Book of Jubilee was to defend Judaism against the disintegrating effects of Hellenism, and this he did
(a) by glorifying the law as an eternal ordinance and representing the patriarchs as models of piety;
(b) by glorifying Israel and insisting on its separation from the Gentiles; and
c) by denouncing the Gentiles and particularly Israel’s national enemies. In this last respect Judaism regarded its own attitude to the Gentiles as not only justifiable but also just, because it was a reflection of the divine.
Structure of the Book of Jubilees
The most marked characteristic of the book is that from which it has its most common name, “The Book of Jubilee”, the dating of events by successive Jubilees. The whole history of the world is set in a framework of Jubilees and every event is dated by the Jubilee of the world’s history in which it had occurred, and the year-week of that Jubilee and the year of that week. The writer has carried his septenary principle into the year and made the days in it, as did the writer of one of the Enoch books, a multiple of seven, 364 = 7 x 52 days. The whole book is divided into 50 chapters each with verses.
Theology of the Book of Jubilees
Freedom and determinism:
The Book combines belief in Divine omnipotence and providence with the belief in human freedom and responsibility. Thus the path in which a man should walk is ordained for him and the judgment of all men is predetermined on the heavenly tablets: “And the judgment of all is ordained and written on the heavenly tablets in righteousness – even the judgment of all who depart from the path which is ordained for them to walk in” (5:13). This idea of an absolute determinism underlies many conceptions of the heavenly tablets.
On the other hand, man’s freedom and responsibility are fully recognized: “If they walk not therein, judgment is written down for every creature” (5:13); “Beware lest thou walk in their ways, And tread in their paths, And sin a sin unto death before the Most High God. Else He will give thee back into the hand of thy transgression”. Even when a man has sinned deeply he can repent and be forgiven (41:24), but the human will needs the strengthening of a moral dynamic: “May the Most High God . . . strengthen thee to do His will” (21:25; 22:10).
The Fall
The author of the Book of Jubilees narrated the Fall of Adam and Eve. However, according to him, the effects of this Fall were limited to Adam and the animal creation. Adam was driven from the garden (3:17) and the animal creation was robbed of the power of speech (3:28). But the subsequent corruption of the human race is not traced to the Fall of Adam but to the seduction of the daughters of men by the angels, who had been sent down to instruct men (5:1-4), and to the solicitations of demonic spirits (7:27). The evil engendered by the former was brought to an end by the destruction of all the descendants of the angels and of their victims by the Deluge, but the incitement to sin on the part of the demons was to last to the final judgement (7:27; 10:1-15; 11:4; 12:20). This last view appears in I Enoch and the NT.
The Law
The law was of eternal validity. It was the revelation in time of what was valid from the beginning of the world and will continue unto all eternity. The various enactments of the law moral and ritual, were written on the heavenly tablets (3:31; 6:17) and revealed to man through the mediation of angels (1:27). This conception of the law made prophecy impossible unless under the guise of pseudonymity. Since the law was the ultimate and complete expression of absolute truth, there was no room for any further revelation; much less could any such revelation, were it conceivable, supersede a single jot or title of the law as already revealed.
The ideal of the faithful Jew was to be realized in the fulfilment of the moral and ritual precepts of this law; the latter were of no less importance than the former. Though this view of morality tends to be mainly external, our author strikes a deeper note when he declares that, when Israel turned to God with their whole heart, He would circumcise the foreskin of their heart and create a right spirit within them and cleanse them, so that they would not turn away from Him forever (1:23).
Some elements of the Law emphasized in the Book are circumcision (16:14; 15:26, 29), the Sabbath (2:18, 31), eating of blood (6:14), giving of the tithe (32:10), Feast of Tabernacles (16:29), Feast of Weeks (6:17), the absolute prohibition of mixed marriages (20:4, 22:20, 25:1-10).
The Messiah
The author believed in the hope of a Messiah sprung from Judah. He makes, however, only one reference to this Messiah, and no role of any importance is assigned to him (cf. 31:18). The Messianic expectation showed no vigorous life throughout this century till it was identified with the Maccabean family. If we are right in regarding the Messianic kingdom as of temporary duration, this is the first instance in which the Messiah is associated with a temporary Messianic kingdom.
The Messianic Kingdom
According to our author (1:29; 23:30) this kingdom was to be brought about gradually by the progressive spiritual development of man and a corresponding transformation of nature. Its members were to attain to the full limit of 1,000 years in happiness and peace. During its continuance the powers of evil were to be restrained (23:29). The last judgement was apparently to take place at its close (23:30).
Angelology
There are notable parallels between our author and the New Testament with regards to Angelology. Besides the angels of the presence and the angels of sanctification there are the angels who are set over natural phenomena (2:2). These angels are inferior to the former. They do not observe the Sabbath as the higher orders; for they are necessarily always engaged in their duties (2:18). It is the higher orders that are generally referred to in the New Testament but the angels over natural phenomena are referred to in Revelation: angels of the winds in 7:1, 2, the angel of fire in 14:18, the angel of the waters in 16:5 (cf. Jub. 2:2). Again, the guardian angels of individuals, which the New Testament refers to in Matt 18:10 (Acts 12:15), are mentioned, for the first time in Jubilees 35:17.
Demonology
The demonology of the Book of Jubilees reappears for the most part in the New Testament:
(a) The angels which kept not their first estate, Jude 6; 2 Peter ii. 4, are the angelic watchers who, though sent down to instruct mankind (Jub. 4:15), fell from lusting after the daughters of men. Their fall and punishment are recorded in Jub 4: 22; 5:1-9.
(b) The demons are the spirits which went forth from the souls of the giants who were the children of the fallen angels, Jub. 5:7, 9. These demons attacked men and ruled over them (10:3, 6). Their purpose is to corrupt and lead astray and destroy the wicked (10:8). They are subject to the prince Mastema (10:9), or Satan. Men sacrifice to them as gods (22:17). They are to pursue their work of moral ruin till the judgement of Mastema (10:8) or the setting up of the Messianic kingdom, when Satan will be no longer able to injure mankind (23:29).
Judgement
The doctrine of retribution is strongly emphasised by the author of Jubilee. This judgment is both for individual and national in this world and in the next. Concerning individual judgment, each person is punished according to his or her sin. What one does to another will be done to him. Speaking about the sin of Cain in Jubilee 4:31-33 the author explains: “With the instrument with which a man kills his neighbour with the same shall he be killed; after the manner that he wounded him, in like manner shall they deal with him”. Similar retribution is found in Paul’s Letter to the Colossians 3:25. In some cases the punishment was to follow instantaneously on the transgression (37:17).
The final judgement would take place at the end of the Messianic kingdom (23:30). Both human and superhuman worlds will be judged (5:10, 14). At this judgement there will be no respect of persons, but all will be judged according to their opportunities and abilities (5:15).
2.2 First Book of Enoch
Bibliography
George W.E. Nickelsburg, “First Book of Enoch”, The Anchor Bible Dictionary vol.2 (London: Doubleday, 1992) 508-516
Introduction
This book is the most important of the apocalyptic writings of the Pseudepigrapha. It is also called the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch, because the complete ancient copy of it is preserved only in Ancient Ethiopic language called (Ge’ez), even though it is believed to have been originally written in Aramaic or Hebrew. Some fragments were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The First Book of Enoch is a collection of some traditions and writings composed about 4th century BC and 1st century AD and in the name of Enoch, son of Jared (Gen 5:21-24). According to the narrative in the Book of Genesis, this Enoch, different from the Enoch mentioned in Gen 4:17-18, lived 365 years; he walked with God and was taken by God. He is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews 11:5-6 and portrayed as one who had faith and pleased God. The first book of Enoch (1:9) is cited in Jude 14-15.
First Enoch attempts to explain some enigmatic passages from the book of Genesis; it was influenced by the canonical books of Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and Daniel and consists of series of revelations which Enoch received in ancient time and transmitted to his son Methuselah for the benefit of the righteous who would live in the end times. The Book presents Enoch as a seer, sage, scribe, priest, and eschatological judge
The Twofold Subject Matter of I Enoch
- The nature and implications of the created structure of the cosmos
- The origin, nature, consequences, and final judgment of evil and sin
The Principal Myths in I Enoch
- Enoch’s journey to the heavenly throne room and through the cosmos and the wisdom that was revealed to him during these journeys.
- Primordial heavenly revolt that has had long-lasting evil consequences for the human race
Structure and Contents of I Enoch
First Enoch may be divided into the following five major sections:
1. The Book of the Watchers (chs.1-36)
Enoch is a righteous man who has received heavenly visions. The book is a collection of revelations regarding divine judgment. It describes the rebellion of angels. The fallen angels, called “Watchers”, have sexual intercourse with human women, who give birth to a race of wicked giants. The giants lay waste to the earth and humanity, and so become the occasion for the flood, in which they are destroyed. But once their demonic spirits are released from their dead bodies, these demons wreak havoc in the world until the end time of judgment.
2. The Book of the Similitudes (or Parables; chs. 37-71)
Enoch again receives heavenly visions, which are interpreted by angels. The primary character of these revelations is the "son of man." Other titles employed to name this messiah figure are “the Chosen One” (the most common title), God’s “Anointed One,” and “the Righteous One.” This heavenly being is God’s agent for the final judgment and vindication of the righteous.
3. The Book of Astronomical Writings (or Heavenly Luminaries, chs. 72-82).
Visions of heavenly and earthly occurrences advocate a 364-day solar calendar, as opposed to the controversial lunar calendar. Enoch describes to his son Methuselah his journey through the stars above the earth, guided by the angel Uriel.
4. The Book of Dream Visions (or Animal Apocalypse, chs. 83-90).
Enoch recounts two visions to Methuselah. The first vision is of the sky falling and the earth undergoing cataclysmic disasters as a result. The second vision takes the form of an apocalyptic allegory describing the history of humanity from the creation of Adam to the final judgment. In it, humans are represented as animals and angels are represented as human beings. The apocalypse details the relationship of Jews with Gentiles and the end time judgment.
5. The Book of the Epistle of Enoch (chs. 91-107).
This epistle is written by Enoch for later generations. Righteousness and wickedness are contrasted throughout the letter in order to show that goodness and truth will be rewarded by God, but evil and sin will be punished by God. This sober eschatological prophecy admonishes readers about the final divine judgment.
These five books within First Enoch were apparently written at different times by different authors. Their probable chronological order from earliest to latest is: 3 - 1 - 4 - 5 - 2. There are 107 chapters of these five books.
Teaching of Enoch
- Belief that God’s will has been revealed and it is to be obeyed.
- It presumes and interpreted the Mosaic Law
- Complemented the Mosaic Law with Enochic Law, which focuses on cosmology and calendar.
- There will be eschatological judgment that will recompense the righteous and sinners for their responses to God’s will.
- There is Afterlife and this allows a begetting of children and a becoming like angels (10:17; 51:4; cf. Mark 12:18-27)
There are four different fates for varying degrees of sanctity and sin (22:9-14) (9 And he answered me and said unto me: 'These three have been made that the spirits of the dead might be separated. And such a division has been make (for) the spirits of the righteous, in which there is the bright spring of 10 water. And such has been made for sinners when they die and are buried in the earth and judgement has not been executed on them in their 11 lifetime. Here their spirits shall be set apart in this great pain till the great day of judgement and punishment and torment of those who curse for ever and retribution for their spirits. There 12 He shall bind them for ever. And such a division has been made for the spirits of those who make their suit, who make disclosures concerning their destruction, when they were slain in the days 13 of the sinners. Such has been made for the spirits of men who were not righteous but sinners, who were complete in transgression, and of the transgressors they shall be companions: but their spirits shall not be slain in the day of judgement nor shall they be raised from thence.' 14 The I blessed the Lord of glory and said: 'Blessed be my Lord, the Lord of righteousness, who ruleth for ever.') This implies the survival of the spirit until judgment and an anticipation of resurrection from the dead.
- Angelology: All the wicked ones are subject to Satan. There are many of these Satan. There is Gadreel who misled Eve (69:6); Semhazah is the leader of the Watcher and had sex with women and begot evil giants; Asael revealed forbidden mysteries to men who used the resultant weapons for war. The same Asael acted on women who used jewels and cosmetics to seduce. I Enoch mentions the Archangels, some of them are already known in the Bible: Gabriel, Michael (cf. Dan 8:16; 10:13 and the NT); Raphael (cf. the Book Tobit); Archangel Uriel is the heavenly tour guide; Phanuel has the fourth spot in 54:6 (And Michael, and Gabriel, and Raphael, and Phanuel shall take hold of them on that great day, and cast them on that day into the burning furnace, that the Lord of Spirits may take vengeance on them for their unrighteousness in becoming subject to Satan and leading astray those who dwell on the earth).
- Son of Man: This figure is seen in the Book of Daniel 7:13-14 and as Christological Title in the NT. In 1 Enoch, “the Son of Man” is identified with the Elect and Righteous One (cf. the Servant in Isaiah 42:1; 53:11), the Lord’s Anointed (Messiah) who receives the spirit of wisdom (cf. Isaiah 11). Enoch is addressed by this title. In I Enoch 48:2-4, the Son of Man is named before creation and is the light of the nations. He is the supreme judge, destroying the wicked and ruling over all, banqueting with the righteous on the last day. All these have great similarity with the image of Jesus in the NT.
I Enoch and Early Christianity
Early Christians made copious use of I Enoch even when it was not recognised by Judaism as canonical book.
- The Gospel according to Mark, precisely the Son of Man sayings, seems to have known I Enoch and Christianised it.
- Traditions associated with the Apostle Peter in Matthew 16 and in 1-2 Peter, and the Apocalypse of Peter have some affinities with I Enoch
- The NT Book of Revelation by John at Patmos is the closest formal counterpart to the Book of Parables in I Enoch.
- Jude 14-15 and Tertullian ascribe prophetic status to patriarch Enoch and quote the opening oracle and the Epistle respectively.
- Justin the Martyr and Irenaeus knew I Enoch’s writing on angelic traditions.
I Enoch and Qumran Sectarian Documents
Notable similarities exist between Essenes’ documents and I Enoch:
- Common solar calendar
- Antagonism toward the Second Temple of Jerusalem
- Religious awakening, reform, or renewal in the Hellenistic period
- The claim to be God’s righteous elect who possess the interpretation of the Torah necessary for salvation and insight into the divine eschatological mysteries
- A common militant ideology that anticipated the elect community’s participation in the coming judgment
2.3 Second Book of Enoch
Bibliography
R. E. Brown – P. Perkins – A.J. Saldarini, “Apocrypha; Dead Sea Scrolls; Other Jewish
Literature”, The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1992) 1055-1082
The ancient version of this document exists only in Slavonic language. Second Enoch is a pseudepigraphic apocalypse mixed with narrative, Biblical midrash, and wisdom teaching. The first section of (chs. 1-68) deals with Enoch’s life; the second (chs. 69-73), with events from the time of Enoch until the death of Noah. Themes discussed include Enoch’s tour of heaven and hell, ethical teaching, Adam and Melkisedek, angels and the seven heavens, human souls, and the creation of the world out of nothing.
Other names given to this book are Slavonic Apocalypse of Enoch, Tale of / Word of / Life of / Book of (the Secrets of)(Righteous or Wise) Enoch. These variants reflect the diverse contents of the book. It does not have any direct citations of the Old Testament, although it addresses subject material found in Genesis, First Enoch, and perhaps syncretistic Egyptian traditions from Roman times.
2 Enoch consists of various genres: apocalyptic because of its revelations of heavenly secrets; narrative, for it is a midrash on Gen 5:24; wisdom tradition because it contains moral admonitions; strong scientific interest, because of its discussions of natural phenomena, especially astronomy.
2 Enoch recounts how Enoch ascended to the seventh heaven, seeing paradise and hell on the way, he became an angel, epitomised 366 heavenly books, and then returned to earth to give ethical instructions to his children and others. In chap 71 Enoch’ priestly descendant Melchisedek, conceived without earthly father, was born from his dead mother’s body.
The Book is often considered as product of the Greek-speaking Jews in Diaspora, specifically centred in Alexandria, Egypt. It includes many of the motifs characteristic of Hellenistic religious literature: visionary journeys, astrological calculations, a highly developed angelology, personal confrontations with divine beings, and a structural view of heaven.
2.4 The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
A testament is the final wish of a person before his or her departure from this world. It was a well know literary form in Judaism and Hellenistic world. There are examples in both the OT and the NT. Moses’ blessings upon the tribes of Israel in Deut 33 and Jesus’ Last Discourse in John 13-17 are parts of these examples. Jacob’s blessings on his twelve sons in Genesis 49 are the immediate context of the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs in Pseudepigrapha. Unlike the Gen 49, the Book of Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs gives the testament of each of those twelve patriarchs to his own sons.
This is a collection of pseudonymous last testaments of the 12 sons of Jacob. Each testament offers ethical exhortations appropriate to the patriarch. Vices and virtues are contrasted so the reader may learn from the life stories of each of the fathers of Israel. Recurring topics include money, sexuality, compassion and hatred, truth and falsehood, pure and impure minds, arrogance and humility, simplicity, envy, endurance, and demonic spirits. The Testament of Asher warns against duplicity and exhorts readers to serve God with one’s whole mind. Appropriate to the fictional setting before the Mosaic Law, the book does not require circumcision, Sabbath observance, or Jewish dietary codes for good moral conduct. The Testaments also concern the future of Israel and the hope of final salvation of both Jews and Gentiles. The Testaments stress forgiveness of sins as exampled in the lives of the patriarchs, and the priesthood and mediation of the Messiah(s), expected to descend from the tribe of Judah / Levi.
Sources of this document are mainly illustrative material from Genesis 29:30-31:24; 34;
35:16-26; 37-50. The Testaments of 12 Patriarchs was composed in the First Century AD.
The Pattern of the Testaments
The contents of the Testaments follow a definite pattern in relating the words of each of the patriarchs. The pattern is (a) a rubric describing the dying patriarch, generally giving his age; (b) a pseudohistorical account of the patriarch’s life, trial, and visions; (c) an all-important parentic section drawing on that life to warn the children against evil and to encourage virtue, with Joseph being particularly virtuous; (d) a conclusion instructing the children for the future; (e) a rubric about the patriarch’s death.
Christian Material in the Testament of the 12 Patriarchs
The Testaments have a good number of Christian teachings and beliefs:
- Testament of Benjamin 10:8 says of the Lord Jesus: “When he appeared as God in the flesh to deliver them, they did not believe him”.
- Testament of Levi 14:2 speaks of the chief priests: “who shall lay their hand violently on the Saviour of the world”.
- Testament of Simeon 6:7 says that God has taken a body and eaten with people and saved people.
- Testament of Gad 6:3: “Love one another from your heart. If anyone sins against you, speak peaceably to him ... If he repents and confesses, forgive him”.
- Testament of Dan 5:3: “Love the Lord your God through your whole life, and one another with a true heart” (cf. Mark 12:30-31).
Some Important Teachings of the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
There seems to be belief of the coming of two Messiahs in this document. The first would be anointed high priest who would come from the tribe of Levi according to the Testament of Reuben 6:7-12; while the second would be an expected anointed king from Judah, according to Testament of Judah 24:5-6. However, Testament of Judah 21:2 gives supremacy to the levitical Messiah. It is interesting to note that the documents from Qumran also expected two types of Messiahs.
Demonology: Beliar - mutation of Belial - in the OT is an abstract noun meaning “worthlessness”. In the Testaments, it is the personified leader of the forces of evil and adversary of God. He is the lord of darkness (cf. Testament of Joseph 20:2). The high priest from Levi will war upon him (cf. Testament of Dan 5:10), bind him, and stamp on the evil spirits (Testament of Levi 18:12) to be cast into eternal fire (Testament of Judah 25:3). Note that “Beliar” also appears as a name for Satan at Qumran and in 2 Cor 6:15.
Resurrection: The just will rise on the right hand with gladness; the wicked will be on the left (Testament of Benjamin 10:6-8). Again, the righteous will reside in the New Jerusalem (Testament of Dan 5:12). The location of this New Jerusalem is not stated.
2.5 Psalms of Solomon
This group of Pseudepigrapha consists of eighteen Psalms attributed to Solomon and written in the First Century BC. There were probably written in Hebrew but the complete and existing ancient text of this book is in Greek and Syriac. The Hebrew text must have been lost.
Historical Allusions in the Psalms of Solomon
Psalms of Solomon have the pattern of the OT Psalms and share many themes with them. However, this Apocrypha is known for its striking historical allusions, most probably to the action of the Roman General, Pompey. Psalm 2 of the Psalms of Solomon, for instance, explains:
1 When the sinner waxed proud, with a battering-ram he cast down fortified
walls,
And Thou didst not restrain (him).
2 Alien nations ascended Thine altar,
They trampled (it) proudly with their sandals;
3 Because the sons of Jerusalem had defiled the holy things of the Lord,
Had profaned with iniquities the offerings of God.
4 Therefore He said: Cast them far from Me;
Another portion of Psalm 2 alludes again to how Pompey died in Egypt in 48 BC
(25) Delay not, O God, to recompense them on (their) heads,
To turn the pride of the dragon into dishonour.
30(26) And I had not long to wait before God showed me the insolent one
Slain on the mountains of Egypt,
Esteemed of less account than the least on land and sea;
31 (27) His body, ( too,) borne hither and thither on the billows with much
These obvious allusions to specific historical events support the dating of this Psalm to First Century BC.
Tracing the author of the Psalms of Solomon
The Psalms exhibit a string “we versus they” mentality, a strong opposition between the righteous and the wicked, as the psalmist finds faults with the foreigners and even fellow Jews. The writer identifies himself with a group that he calls the righteous (3:3), the pious (9:3), those who fear the Lord (2:33), the poor (10:6), the innocent (12:4), and the saints (11:1). His opponents are called the unrighteous (12:5), the sinners (4:8), the transgressors (14:6), those who please men (4:8), the lawless (17:20), the deceitful (4:23), the hypocrites (4:20), and the wicked (12:1).
This obvious contrast in the Book which reflects perhaps a dichotomy within Israel itself suggests that these Psalms were composed by a Jewish sect or party. Again, the Psalms manifest characteristics features of the Pharisaic sect described by Josephus. These features are: a.) proper interpretation of the Law (4:8); b.) divine providence and human free will (9:4-5); resurrection (3:12), and retribution (2:7). On the other hand, there are some scholars who argue that the opponents in these Psalms are the Sadducees because the texts accuse the opponents of profaning the Temple and its sacrifices (1:8; 2:3; 8:12). Furthermore, the Psalms of Solomon have some parallels with the Dead Sea Scrolls, and because of this some also attribute the authorship of this Book to the Essenes who lived at Qumran.
Contents and Teaching of the Psalms of Solomon
The Book reflects the struggle the Jews underwent as they attempted to reconcile devastation at the hands of a foreign conqueror (Pompey) with the belief that Israel was God’s Chosen People. This is why in the book, the author emphasizes so much that the evils which have befallen the nation have been caused by the sin of the people (1:7-8; 2:11-13; 8:9-14,22; 17:5-8, 19-20).
The author said that God has abandoned his people Israel and punished them because of their sins; but this punishment is only for some time because the same God who punished his people will have mercy on them forever. His mercy endures forever! There is much confidence in the mercy of God who will restore his people again.
Such confidence in God is strongly expressed in the hope that Messiah will come. Psalms 17 and 18 focus on this Messianic hope. This Messiah is from the line of David. He will come to liberate Israel from her enemies and restore Jerusalem to its proper place. The Messiah is not a military figure for his trust is in God and not in horses or any other strength. Following OT Psalm 2 and Isaiah 11, this Messiah is a king (17:21,32,42); judge (17:26-29); and shepherd (17:40-41). All these descriptions of the coming Messiah make Psalms of Solomon an important witness to pre-Christian Jewish messianic expectations.
Psalms of Solomon also affirm piety of works or personal piety. The righteous walk according to God’s commandments (14:2) and they are known for their righteousness (9:3); they confess their sins to God (9:6); they repent of their sins (9:7); they endure God’s discipline willingly (3:4; 10:2; 14:1). God judges each person according to their deeds (9:5).
2.6 The Assumption/Testament of Moses
Nature of the Text
The text of Assumption of Moses is incomplete, poorly preserved. It is written as a prophecy which Moses addressed to his assistant, Joshua. It was discovered as a palimpsest (a manuscript written over a partly erased older manuscript in such a way that the old words can be read beneath the new) in the Ambrosian library in Milan by an Italian orientalist called M. Ceriani and published in 1861. The one discovered at Milan is a Latin edition translated from Greek. The Latin edition dates from 5th century AD. The Greek version was written in the first century AD. No one is sure whether it was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic.
Ceriani, who discovered and published the Latin text, called it “The Assumption of Moses”, because a certain Assumption of Moses was quoted in the Acts of the Council of Nicea and in some writings of the early Fathers of the Church. The story of the Assumption of Moses (cf. Jude 9) refers to how Moses was taken directly to heaven rather than dying natural death. It is a popular story in some Jewish writings. The Pseudepigraph discovered by Ceriani has nothing to say about assumption of Moses. In fact in 1:15; 3:13; 10:14, the text mentions that Moses died a natural death. On account of this the text is often called the Testament of Moses and not the Assumption of Moses.
Literary Genre
The book is presented like a testament. It has deathbed words of an elderly person dear to his people, family and successor. It is the final statement of Moses to Joshua.
Contents
It outlines the following: the Conquest of the Promised Land (2:1-2), the time of the Judges and the united kingdom (2:3-4) and the period of the divided kingdoms (2:5-9). In chap 3 there is the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians (vv.1-3) and the reunion of all the tribes in the lands of their exile (vv. 4-14). There is also the return from exile (4:1-6) and the rebuilding of Jerusalem.
Moses predicts the apostasy which will arise among the Hellenizing Jews in the times of Antiochus, the Hasmoneans, and Herod, and the consecutive severe persecutions including the partial destruction of the Temple.
Prophecy of Political Events: In 6:2 the text describes the cruel rule of “an insolent” king who will not be of the race of the priests; perhaps referring to Herod the Great. The priest will reign for a great length of years, 34 years. He will beget children who will succeed him but their years will not be as lengthy as their father’s (6:7). A powerful king from the west will subdue the country (6:8). This will mark the end of times.
Other points include: the hypocrisy of the ruling class, the chaos of the persecution, the appearance of a faithful Levite called Taxo and his seven sons. They prefer death rather than desert their faith (chap. 9).
There is in chap 10 an apocalyptic hymn which portrays the destruction of the evil one at the hands of Israel’s guardian angel (10:1-2), exaltation of Israel at the end of days (10:3-10)
At the end of the text, one finds the reply of Joshua (chap 11) where he expresses his fears that after Moses’ death the enemies of Israel will overwhelm the Israelites. There is also Moses’ response, assuring Joshua that God’s purpose will not fail and that the covenant promises will abide (10:11-12:13).
Theological Themes
- Human beings are the cause of what happen to them in life. This is a traditional theme in the OT.
- Determinism: God has determined all things in the past and future (3:11-12; 12:4-5)
- God’s covenant promises, confirmed by his oath, will not fail (1:8-9; 3:9; 4:2-6; 12:7-13)
- God created the world for his people Israel (1:12).
- There is an allusion to Moses’ preexistence and role as a mediator.
Testament of Moses and other Writings
- Deuteronomy 31-34 – the final days of Moses – is the fundamental base of the Testament of Moses. The Testament can be read as a Midrash on this text of Deuteronomy.
- 1 Enoch and 2 Baruch
- Some Qumran writings
- Jude 9, 12-13, 16;
- 2 Peter 2:13
- Acts 7:36-43
- Matt 24:19-21
[1] This Lecture Note is largely based on the The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament R.H. Charles Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913; coded in 2004 by http://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanon/pseudepigrapha.htm, accessed in May 2014.